Wednesday 8 August 2012

Italian folk charms.

Ive been asked to write a little on Italian folk magic, so here we go:

I wasn't really sure where to start, so I thought I start with charms, below are a list of magical charms and  symbols utilised in Italy and the diaspora.
The first thing Id like to cover, just because it is so mysterious and intriguing are the trulli hex signs of puglia.


Hex Signs of Puglia:


In the region of Puglia, there are traditional houses called "trulli", these houses are conical stone huts and are very common in the region, they are not really found anywhere outside of Puglia, I think I'm right in saying these houses are the result of Arabic influence on southern Italian culture. Most of these houses are centred around the town of Alberobello, which has become a sort of tourist spot due to its unusual architecture.
Granted I've only ever been to Puglia once and spent most of my time there at a waterpark eating gelato, but on the way there I still got chance to see plenty of trulli and nearly all them had these strange hex signs painted on their roofs in whitewash.
I was immediately intrigued by these strange magical signs, but whats even weirder and i intriguing is nobody is really sure of their origin, not even the families who paint them on the roofs every year, they simply shrug and say "its what we have always done". Their primary function is to ward off evil spirits, deflect witchcraft and attract luck.




Trulli decorated with hex signs 

Many of the signs on the roofs are catholic in nature and therefore self explanatory as magical symbols (catholic imagery extends beyond the realm of religion in Italy and crosses over into the realm of superstition and magic, often being used as general symbols for luck, blessing and reversing evil) for example, the pierced heart of Our Lady, the sacred heart of Jesus, the Host, the Cross etc...
However these catholic images are the exception rather than the rule. Planetary symbols from astrology are much more common and even more common are primitive symbols of suns, stickmen, crudely drawn animals and geometric shapes. And even more seen than these are strange primitive abstract symbols to who's exact origins are any ones guess (including the folk who paint them).




Common trulli hex signs. From left to right; primitive, catholic and astrological
Paint one above your door to keep the malocchio off or just as an interesting conversation piece to friends.


Cimaruta:
This charm is a very old Italian charm and falls under the category of "portafortuna" which translates as a lucky charm but can be used as a catch all term for practically any amulet or talisman. Italians are obsessed with charms that are carried or worn as jewellery. This particular charm is much more popular in the diaspora than in Italy itself, probably due to its heavy associations with witchcraft which carries satanic connotations for many Italians (please don't send me any messages telling me paganism isn't satanic, I already know this, but satanic witchcraft is far more common in Italian culture than pagan witchcraft, this isn't up for debate but a comment made on my own personal experience.)
I personally don't think the charm is satanic and I would happily wear one, I think the charm is wonderful and very magical.



Cimaruta



It can be worn by women or men, but is generally deemed to be more of a feminine thing.
The charm consists of a piece of silver that has been shaped into a triform bunch of rue, from the tips of the rue branches sprout strange arcane symbols. Symbols vary between individual charms however the following symbols are usually always present: A waxing crescent moon, a key, a vervaine flower, a sacred heart and a fish.
The symbolism contained within the cimaruta are a blend of symbols taken from pagan, catholic and peasant folk magic, which reflects the traditional folk spirituality of Italy perfectly.
The sacred heart, the fish and the triform nature of the branch are all catholic symbols, representing Jesus, Christian faith and the Trinity.
The key and the crescent moon are likely pagan symbols of the pagan Gods Hekate and Diana, both two Goddesses associated with witchcraft and magic, these Gods where very popular symbols of magic in renaissance art and literature in Italy which is probably the period of time where the charm originates.
Rue itself is a powerful protector against evil magic in Italian herbal lore as are vervaine flowers, which also bring luck. Silver is also used in many Italian folk charms to bring money (stare at the moon whilst turning a silver coin in your pocket is one charm that springs to mind.)
Like I said previously, the charm is very popular in the diaspora and in recent years has been adopted by witches and magical practitioners within the Italian diaspora as a sort of unofficial badge of identity.

Cornetto:
This charm shaped as a bulls horn is massively popular in Southern Italy especially around Napoli and in the region of Calabria. It is so typical of the Mezzogiorno region that in the diaspora it is often worn by people of Calabrese and Neopolitan descent as a badge of cultural identity. If you are lucky enough to ever visit Calabria or Naples you will see this charm everywhere, and I mean everywhere. Worn as jewellery, hung on rear view mirrors, dangling in shop windows, carried as key rings, printed on t-shirts. The charm is generally considered something men would ware as among its many blessings it grants virility through its obviously phallic shape, the symbolism of bull like virility is also obvious. However it carries many other blessings too, among them luck, wealth, success and therefore is also sometimes used by women too.

Cornetto



The charm should be red in colour, this symbolises the defeat of your enemies (imagine a bulls horn covered in blood after it has gored a rival.). The horn should also should be empty so it can fill itself with blessings ready to be poured out into your life. The top is usually crowned with a gold crown to represent success, mastery and wealth. The blessings of this charm are manifold; luck, protection, virility, strength, success, abundance, wealth to name a few...small wonder it is so popular!

The origins of the cornetto are a bit of a mystery, its very old and probably Roman in origin, taken from the myth of the cornucopia or magical horn of plenty that was carried by the Roman Goddess Abundantia (which is where the word "abundance" comes from), though the traditional cornucopia is generally seen as a goats rather than bulls horn.
Abundantias cornucopia produced never ending supplies of delicious food and gold coins which she poured out generously on those who pleased her.
There is some evidence that the cornetto may be even older, perhaps even Etruscan as Etruscan houses would often hang a bulls horn above the front door for prosperity. Others have suggested a neolithic origin to the magic horn.

Ideally the cornetto should be given to you as gift for maximum luck bringing effectiveness, but if you want to buy one as a gift for yourself, that's fine too.

Mano corno. Careful who you flash it too.

As with all magical charms be a little careful, some conservative folk believe the charm to be satanic, a charm that is said to invoke the devil for financial aid.

Mano Corno:
An alternative to the cornetto, this lucky charm is credited with the power of warding off the dreaded "malocchio" or evil eye, it is also a general charm of luck. it is basically a hand giving a 2 fingered horned salute.





This charm is a little controversial as it is considered offensive, I would personally not recommend wearing it on show when in the company of Italians. The gesture the hand is making is that of the "cornuto" or cuckold man. The idea is that if a mans wife cheats on him, he will grow horns as a mark of shame, making this sign to someone is a sign you think they are a weak, pathetic and foolish. The gesture is immensely insulting and is the equivalent of sticking your middle finger up at someone.
The origin of the charm is strange and I have little idea where it comes from, it is possible that due to the belief that the evil eye being cast is usually through jealousy (especially sexual jealousy), then slamming someone down and taking the wind out of their sails by accusing them of sexual jealousy because their wife is too busy cavorting with other men may be one possible explanation. Another explanation is that the sign is intentionally insulting, meaning it is worn as an insult to the devil and his minions, sort of like throwing salt in the devils eye to bring luck.
Other explanations include it is simply a variation on the cornetto charm, other explanations point to occult gestures used in satanic Italian witchcraft. Truth is I don't know.






if your anyone asks just say its lucky and leave it at that
Mano Figa:
Again another controversial charm that shouldn't be on show in polite company! The Mano Figa literally translates as "c*nt hand" (the word "figa" is a very vulgar term for vagina). It is a gesture made with a fist to resemble a vulva. The slit produced by the middle and index fingers represent the vagina, whilst the protruding thumb a clitoris. The charm is one of protection and prosperity. As a charm of protection, it is likely that the vulgarity of the charm is supposed to be an insult to demons and the devil. The luck bringing side of the charm is probably an allusion to fertility, the vagina, being the exit of the womb, is a source of life and therefore abundance. But again I don't really know.


Coccinella:
Slightly twee but worth a mention is the coccinella, the ladybird charm, a simple harbinger of luck especially in love. Its common so its worth a mention. Probably considered lucky because of its colour (red is very auspicious in Italian culture as it symbolises victory over enemies and averts the evil eye) and because of its beauty.

Coccinella charm

Kitchen Gods:

If you have ever spent time in Italian households you will have seen a mask of the roman god Bacchus on the wall in the kitchen. They are usually clay or pottery of some kind depicted with smiling mouth open and wearing a crown of grapes and vine leaves. You may also see the Goddess Abundtia holding a cornucopia, or a cornucopia by itself or renaissace images of the Goddess Ceres baring her breasts. These are generally kept for their beauty, however they are also symbols of abundance, kept in the kitchen to ensure food is never in short supply. It is important to remember that families who keep these pagan images arent pagans themselves, they simply see these old Gods of Roma as symbols of prosperity and abundance, lucky to have around.



Gobbo:

A strange fetish that comes in the form of a hunchback man depicted as a tramp clutching a horseshoe in one hand and making a horned salute with the other. He is also sometime depicted wearing a battered top hat with a ladybird sat on top of it and a 4 leaf clover through his buttonhole. Other times he is portrayed wearing a white clown outfit and a black venetian mask. He is also sometimes portrayed surmounting a cornetto, this variation of the charm is called a corno gobbo.

Gobbo charms
This is a powerful luck charm especially when it comes to money and gambling, when you need extra luck you should rub the hump on his back.


Well that's all i can think of for now! Of course there are many, many more charms and the like but I hope this covered some interesting basics and cleared up a few of the misconceptions floating around.

Ciao for now.




28 comments:

  1. You have a good article here but some of your information is incorrect. The cornicello (cornetto) is an amulet that is first and foremost used to protect against the Malocchio, its red colour has a few different explanations: for the Calabrese, they explain it as a chili, do to the abundance of red chili in the region. The Neapolitans traditionally carve their's from red coral, again because of the abundance of red coral along Campania's coast, when the coral's colour fades it is believed that it is no longer protective. The other regions of Italy where the horn is popular, such as Sicily, will generally use materials such as gold and silver to cast their amulets. Either way the red colour denotes protection from all maladies, supernatural and natural, so not necessarily "victory over ones enemies".
    The Mano Cornuto is a gesture that when directed at another individual will be seen as highly offensive, however wearing the amulet is never demmed as an insult and no Italian would see it as such. Again this is an amulet used to protect against the malocchio.
    The Mano Fico (Fig Hand) is along the same lines as the other amulets, it is a protective amulet against the evil eye.
    These three amulets are all protective and can all be interpreted as sexual gestures and/or phallic talismans, this is because the evil eye, the malocchio, is a curse caused by envy that effects the forces of creation (ie making men sterile and women barren) as well as other maladies. Therefore to wear an amulet that represents the very thing that the curse is meant to attack neutralizes its effects or even rebounds them to the sender, in the case of the Mano Cornuto.
    As far any "satanic" influence behind any of these, there is none. These are all folk charms and carry with them the folk religion and folk magic/healing traditions of Southern Italy and Sicily with them and therefore are rooted in the practices of devout Catholics (folk Catholicism at the very least).
    Just thought I'd help you clear some of that up and teach you a bit more about the traditions of my people.

    S'abbinirica!

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    Replies
    1. the Conical shapes of the Trulli are not Arabic in origin at all. they resemble no structure outside the area of Puglia. Though invaders in Italy may have been Muslim and have spoken Arabic, these invaders were related to the Alawites in Syria and traditional Persia (Iran) not Arabs

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    2. Thank You for your knowledge and wisdom, as well as clearing up the misinterpretations that may put a black mark on our good name.

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    3. Thank You for your knowledge and wisdom, as well as clearing up the misinterpretations that may put a black mark on our good name.

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  2. The trulli hex signs you speak of, the first column is not Primitive as you have stated, they are called Sigils. These Sigils are for protection, luck, warding off evil. I am not the creator of the Sigils so I cannot tell you the exact meaning. Just thought I would let you know.

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  4. this was an awesome read for an italian american. and thank you for all of the clarification!

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  5. Hi there - well as a half blood Italian I will contribute with my other - bastard also - half - the Greek .. Superstitious Mediterraneans ??? !!! Naaah... We (me at least -that should be ) just won't dare leave home - not with out AMEX - but a blue (Turquise in my case ) stone for protection from bad eye - wearing a few - and if some friend persists praising or admiring anything having to do with us ... we just give him the figa mano - but discreetly - from inside the pocket... Politically and socially correct .. if the guest stays too long to be further welcome a pinch of salt behind his back will get him on his way to his own home and me to bed.. I NEVER carry coins on me from previous day ( good way for you all to start saving some and avoid small time results in you new day) - NEVER - EVER wear brand new clothes and rest accessories and I confess hiding ( just in case ) my garlic ( that's the ultra strong protection against evil eye in our "culture" ) away from evil eyes - nostrils - AND sarcastic comments - well hidden in my vehicle's glove or console compartment ... But be no fooled - in my pocket you can bet you find a few more talismans and charms - but honestly.. JUST IN CASE .. Looking to buy all over a decent corno cobbo - those - call it bone - to be environmentally correct - and coral - maybe a good epoxy resin - or something real quality from the 70s - behaved like a proper pimping Tom and read the whole 9 paragraphs - which loved - even with their occasional incorrectness for - THANKS GOD I'M NOT GRAPHIC (alone) !!! An advise : We Greeks have our xematiastres ( casting away the influences of bad eyes - you know - the oil - water and eggs procedure... Even from Costa Rica where we live most of the year - each time we feel spelled we call our Ismir witch background untie to relieve us by phone - my wife does for me - see I got to maintain some minimum face and status - and TRUST ME IT TAKES NOT LONG TO RECOVER !!!! I hope you do have a good which relative - for your shake....

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    Replies
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  15. I WANT TO LET THE WORLD KNOW ABOUT THE MIGHTY SPELL CASTER DR OKEKE ODIN WHO HELPED ME BROUGHT BACK MY HUSBAND BACK HOME TO MY KIDS. I WAS MARRIED TO MY HUSBAND WILLIAM SCOTCH FOR SEVEN YEARS AND WE LIVED HAPPILY TOGETHER UNTIL A CERTAIN DAY HE JUST WOKE UP FROM SLEEP TO TELL ME THAT HE DOES NOT LOVE ME ANY MORE. AT FIRST I TAUGHT IT WAS A JOKE BUT WITH TIME I BECAME TO SEE THAT HE WAS SERIOUS.WE ALREADY HAVE TWO KIDS TOGETHER AND I WAS ALREADY PREGNANT FOR MY THIRD BABY. SO A DAY CAME WHEN HE JUST ARRANGED HIS BAGS AND SAID HE WAS LEAVING THE HOUSE FOR GOOD AND NOT LONGER INTERESTED IN THE RELATIONSHIP. I FOUND OUT THAT HE WAS IN LOVE WITH ANOTHER GIRL AND THEY BOTH TRAVELED OUT OF THE STATE. AS I WAS READING THROUGH THE INTERNET ABOUT DIVORCE, I READ ABOUT THIS GREAT SPELL CASTER DR OKEKE SO I CONTACTED HIM FOR HELP. HE TOLD ME NOT TO WORRY THAT IN JUST 48 HOURS, THAT MY HUSBAND WAS GOING TO COME BACK. I NEVER BELIEVED HIM UNTIL THE FOLLOWING DAY WHEN MY HUSBAND CAME TO THE HOUSE ASKING FOR MY FORGIVENESS. NOW WE ARE HAPPY TOGETHER WITH OUR KIDS AND THE EVIL WOMAN THAT CAUSE THE PROBLEM IN MY MARRIAGE WAS SENT AWAY BY MY HUSBAND. YOU CAN CONTACT DR OKEKE TODAY TO SAVE YOUR MARRIAGE OR RELATIONSHIP REACH HIM ON HIS (writelovespell@gmail.com) or reach him on whatsAp on +2348140443360 HE IS THE BEST SPELL CASTER AND SOLUTION TO ALL YOUR PROBLEMS AND PREDICAMENTS

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  16. I had struggle relationship with my husband in the past which led to divorce with my first husband. After i and my ex husband got divorced, i had another chance to re-marry again and just 5 years of my second marriage there was another divorce which almost killed me emotionally. I stayed for another two years been unmarried and a single mother. Honestly I wasn't really happy it because every woman need a man in her life, there was a time i saw my first husbands photo and i realized how much i loved him and have missed him. I tried to get to him but i was told that he moved on with his life and we may never been together again. I wept bitterly that night thinking i have lost the man that i have had so much love for. I asked for advise on what to do and a friend of mine gave me a contact of Osasu Solution Temple, i consulted him and to his very best with his powerful spells he helped me with a Reunion Marriage Love Spell to returned my ex husband back to me, in just 9 days i had enchanter with a spiritual reunion prayers with priest Osasu everything turn around for good in my life, I am now happily living with my first husband again and sort out the divorce issues. with the help of Osasu temple, his a man of wisdom and care. Thanks and i appreciate all the help you have rendered to get my ex husband back into my life again. I testify here today that Osasu temple is powerful it can resolve all problem in a broken relationship with love once. contact him for solutions to any kind of relationship problem. Email....(drosasu25@gmail.com) You can also call him or add him on WhatsApp +2347064365391

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  17. WHAT A GREAT MIRACLE THAT I HAVE EVER SEE IN MY LIFE. My names are Clara David I’m a citizen of USA, My younger sister was sicking of breast cancer and her name is Sandra David I and my family have taking her to all kind of hospital in USA still yet no good result. I decided to search for cancer cure so that was how I found a lady called Peter Lizzy. She was testifying  to the world about the goodness of a herbal man who has the roots and herbs to cure all kinds of disease and the herbal man's email was there. So I decided to contact the herbal man @herbalist_sakura for my younger sister's help to cure her breast cancer. I contacted him and told him my problem he told me that I should not worry that my sister cancer will be cure, he told me that there is a medicine that he is going to give me that I will cook it and give it to my sister to drink for one week, so I ask how can I receive the cure that I am in USA, he told me That I will pay for the delivery service. The courier service can transport it to me so he told me the amount I will pay, so my dad paid for the delivery fee. two days later I receive the cure from the courier service so I used it as the herbal man instructed me to, before the week complete my sister cancer was healed and it was like a dream to me not knowing that it was physical I and my family were very happy about the miracle of Doctor so my dad wanted to pay him 5 million us dollars the herbal man did not accept the offer from my dad, but I don't know why he didn't accept the offer, he only say that I should tell the world about him and his miracle he perform so am now here to tell the world about him if you or your relative is having any kind of disease that you can't get from the hospital please contact dr.sakuraspellalter@gmail.com or whats app him +2348110114739  you can follow him up on Instagram @herbalist_sakura for the cure, he will help you out with the problem. And if you need more information about the doctor you can mail me davidclara223@gmail.com 

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  18. Hello my name is Belinda i want to share my amazing experience with the greatest spell caster Dr irekenagba. my husband was cheating on me and when i found out we had a fight which lead to him filling for a divorce i cried and fell sick when i was searching about love quotes online i saw people talking about him and his great work whose case was similar to mine they left his contact info i contacted him and he told me not to worry that after 24hrs he will cancel the divorce and be back to me after i did everything he asked me to do to my greatest surprise the next day evening it was my husband he knelt down begging me to accept him back,thank you once again Dr irekenagba you are indeed a blessing to me he can also help you contact him on........
    WhatsApp: +2347059630655
    email:doctorirekenagba@gmail.com

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  19. Hello my name is Belinda i want to share my amazing experience with the greatest spell caster Dr irekenagba. my husband was cheating on me and when i found out we had a fight which lead to him filling for a divorce i cried and fell sick when i was searching about love quotes online i saw people talking about him and his great work whose case was similar to mine they left his contact info i contacted him and he told me not to worry that after 24hrs he will cancel the divorce and be back to me after i did everything he asked me to do to my greatest surprise the next day evening it was my husband he knelt down begging me to accept him back,thank you once again Dr irekenagba you are indeed a blessing to me he can also help you contact him on........
    WhatsApp: +2347059630655
    email:doctorirekenagba@gmail.com

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  20. My life Miracle wonders testimony, How I got a very powerful box  that's now double my money from a hundred to a thousand of  money within 24hours, and also how I got my ex lover back, the main reason I contacted Dr Lomi for help was for me to get back my ex lover, then he helps me with is powerful power to bring back my ex lover, and she loves and cherish me now, then me and Dr Lomi became friends, after some conversation I ask him if there is a way he can do a spell for me to get money, that was when he told me about this magic box, he told me there are different types and size of the box, he told me all the type of box, I could only afford the smallest of the box, after the necessary prayer he does on the box, he sends it to me through a delivery service, he told me I should put money inside, I put inside the box 100 euro after 24 hours I found out it was 10 thousand euro inside, and I have been using the box for 7 months now, me and my fiancĂ© are living the best life, if you need back your lover or money spell contact Dr Lomi on email: lomiultimatetemple@gmail.com or WhatsApp number  +2349034287285 he will help you out, thank you for reading

    Best Regards Gerd Ulrich

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  21. Dr.Mamudu the best spell caster online restore my broken relationship and i highly recommends Dr.Mamudu to anyone in need of help!
    My husband left me for another woman 3 months ago and ever since then my life have been filled with pains sorrow and heart break because he was my first love whom i have spent my entire life with. A friend of mine told me he saw some testimonies of a spell caster called Dr Mamudu that he can bring back lover within some few days, i laugh it out and said i am not interested but because of the love my friend had for me, she consulted the great priest on my behalf and to my greatest surprise after 2 days my husband called me for the very first time after three months that he is missing me and that he is so sorry for every thing he made me went through.He came back to me and now we are happy together. I still can’t believe it, because it highly unbelievable. Thank you Dr.Mamudu for bringing back my lover and also to my lovely friend who interceded on my behalf, for any one who might need the help of this great priest here is the email address: drmamudu47@gmail. com , you can also call him or add him on Whats-app: +2348143284524

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  22. Hello all,
    Why must we be confused by all this online scammers when we all know that there has never been any other oracle apart from the great spell casters called Dr Ajayi Ololo the great oracle and also i my self called Dr kuq ya that is greatest of all, Kuq ya means GREATEST AMONG ALL THE SPELL CASTERS IN THE WORLD. This oracle has been in existence for so many years even before i was born i inherited it from my great grand father. Since we have been existing we have never failed in solving any kind of problem anyone must have been having because we know the spirits that we serve we never lets us down, We perform various sacrifice to this spirits from time to time to make our powerful and doings effective. This temple is out on the internet to tell all of you that is wasting your time and also your hard earned money dealing with all this hungry souls that called themselves spell casters by bring cause to themselves by claiming to be what they are not, We advise you all that you should stop it as it is not right to do such, Because those spell casters that called themselves different names / temples are scammers and this temple is doing all within there reach to bring them to face the law. You will do this greatest oracle good by doing that. They are scammers and all those testimony there are posted by them also and not the people they have help,They are doing all this to get money to feed themselves and there family members. BE WARNED ALL OF YOU THAT NEED HELP FROM SPELL CASTERS, BECAUSE OF YOU ALL WE HAVE DECIDED TO COME ONLINE TO REDUCE AND STOP ALL THIS FAKE SPELL CASTERS, AS WE GOT PERMISSION FROM THE FBI. I have made so many of them online that are spoiling this great temple good work BLIND AND HAS LAID A CAUSE ON SO MANY OF THEM TOO. I am Dr Kuq Ya the messenger to the great oracle called Ya temple. This temple has helped so many people in the world as we know for reliable and durable spell work. In countries like: USA, Canada, UK, Ireland, Singapore, India, Germany, Poland, Spain, Nigeria, South Africa and so many more to mention has great testimonies about this great temple. We have helped so many countries get there ANCESTRAL problems solve in recent times. But we are also extending this great offer to those that have any kind of problem, when i mean any kind of problem i mean any problem at all you might be having in this life, Such as getting your lover back,you want to be rich, you feel like using charms on someone to get something you like from him or her or getting your scam many back, wining a lottery and more. KUQ YA IS HERE FOR YOUR SERVICES AND PLEASE STOP DEALING WITH THOSE SO CALLED SPELL CASTERS THAT HAVE REALLY MESSED UP THIS WORK ONLINE. I HAVE NEVER BEEN ONLINE,BUT THE PRESIDENTS OF THE ABOVE COUNTRIES AND MORE CALLED ME ON PHONE AND ALSO PERSONALLY HOLD A MEETING AND THEY ASK ME THE MESSENGER TO START ADVERTING AND TELL ALL ABOUT THIS GREATEST ORACLE THAT IS SO DURABLE, PERFECT AND MARVELOUS TO SCAMMING THAT IS GOING ON ONLINE . I WILL BE ENDING HERE NOW, IF YOU HAVE ANYTHING BOTHERING YOUR MIND AND YOU NEED PERMANENT SOLUTION TO IT WITHOUT ANY SIDE EFFECT OR HARM, KINDLY SEND AN EMAIL TO THE FOLLOWING EMAIL ADDRESS: great.spellcaster@yahoo.com OR reach me on WhatsApp via this phone number: +2349024891835. Thanks and may the spirits guide you to read and understand what i said and also we will be awaiting response from you all that have problems that want it solve at once. Have it mind that our spell casting here has no side effect, As it is just to grant you your heart desires without any problem.

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